When code involves polymorphism, there needs to be a mechanism to determine which specific version is actually run. This is called ‘dispatch’. There are two major forms of dispatch: static dispatch and dynamic dispatch. While Rust favors static dispatch, it also supports dynamic dispatch through a mechanism called ‘trait objects’.

For the rest of this chapter, we’ll need a trait and some implementations. Let’s make a simple one, Foo. It has one method that is expected to return a String.

# #![allow(unused_variables)]
#fn main() {
trait Foo {
    fn method(&self) -> String;
}
#}

We’ll also implement this trait for u8 and String:

# #![allow(unused_variables)]
#fn main() {
# trait Foo { fn method(&self) -> String; }
impl Foo for u8 {
    fn method(&self) -> String { format!("u8: {}", *self) }
}

impl Foo for String {
    fn method(&self) -> String { format!("string: {}", *self) }
}
#}

We can use this trait to perform static dispatch with trait bounds:

# trait Foo { fn method(&self) -> String; }
# impl Foo for u8 { fn method(&self) -> String { format!("u8: {}", *self) } }
# impl Foo for String { fn method(&self) -> String { format!("string: {}", *self) } }
fn do_something<T: Foo>(x: T) {
    x.method();
}

fn main() {
    let x = 5u8;
    let y = "Hello".to_string();

    do_something(x);
    do_something(y);
}

Rust uses ‘monomorphization’ to perform static dispatch here. This means that Rust will create a special version of do_something() for both u8 and String, and then replace the call sites with calls to these specialized functions. In other words, Rust generates something like this:

# trait Foo { fn method(&self) -> String; }
# impl Foo for u8 { fn method(&self) -> String { format!("u8: {}", *self) } }
# impl Foo for String { fn method(&self) -> String { format!("string: {}", *self) } }
fn do_something_u8(x: u8) {
    x.method();
}

fn do_something_string(x: String) {
    x.method();
}

fn main() {
    let x = 5u8;
    let y = "Hello".to_string();

    do_something_u8(x);
    do_something_string(y);
}

This has a great upside: static dispatch allows function calls to be inlined because the callee is known at compile time, and inlining is the key to good optimization. Static dispatch is fast, but it comes at a tradeoff: ‘code bloat’, due to many copies of the same function existing in the binary, one for each type.

Furthermore, compilers aren’t perfect and may “optimize” code to become slower. For example, functions inlined too eagerly will bloat the instruction cache (cache rules everything around us). This is part of the reason that #[inline] and #[inline(always)] should be used carefully, and one reason why using a dynamic dispatch is sometimes more efficient.

However, the common case is that it is more efficient to use static dispatch, and one can always have a thin statically-dispatched wrapper function that does a dynamic dispatch, but not vice versa, meaning static calls are more flexible. The standard library tries to be statically dispatched where possible for this reason.

Rust provides dynamic dispatch through a feature called ‘trait objects’. Trait objects, like &Foo or Box<Foo>, are normal values that store a value of any type that implements the given trait, where the precise type can only be known at runtime.

A trait object can be obtained from a pointer to a concrete type that implements the trait by casting it (e.g. &x as &Foo) or coercing it (e.g. using &x as an argument to a function that takes &Foo).

These trait object coercions and casts also work for pointers like &mut T to &mut Foo and Box<T> to Box<Foo>, but that’s all at the moment. Coercions and casts are identical.

This operation can be seen as ‘erasing’ the compiler’s knowledge about the specific type of the pointer, and hence trait objects are sometimes referred to as ‘type erasure’.

Coming back to the example above, we can use the same trait to perform dynamic dispatch with trait objects by casting:

# trait Foo { fn method(&self) -> String; }
# impl Foo for u8 { fn method(&self) -> String { format!("u8: {}", *self) } }
# impl Foo for String { fn method(&self) -> String { format!("string: {}", *self) } }
fn do_something(x: &Foo) {
    x.method();
}

fn main() {
    let x = 5u8;
    do_something(&x as &Foo);
}

or by coercing:

# trait Foo { fn method(&self) -> String; }
# impl Foo for u8 { fn method(&self) -> String { format!("u8: {}", *self) } }
# impl Foo for String { fn method(&self) -> String { format!("string: {}", *self) } }
fn do_something(x: &Foo) {
    x.method();
}

fn main() {
    let x = "Hello".to_string();
    do_something(&x);
}

A function that takes a trait object is not specialized to each of the types that implements Foo: only one copy is generated, often (but not always) resulting in less code bloat. However, this comes at the cost of requiring slower virtual function calls, and effectively inhibiting any chance of inlining and related optimizations from occurring.

Rust does not put things behind a pointer by default, unlike many managed languages, so types can have different sizes. Knowing the size of the value at compile time is important for things like passing it as an argument to a function, moving it about on the stack and allocating (and deallocating) space on the heap to store it.

For Foo, we would need to have a value that could be at least either a String (24 bytes) or a u8 (1 byte), as well as any other type for which dependent crates may implement Foo (any number of bytes at all). There’s no way to guarantee that this last point can work if the values are stored without a pointer, because those other types can be arbitrarily large.

Putting the value behind a pointer means the size of the value is not relevant when we are tossing a trait object around, only the size of the pointer itself.

The methods of the trait can be called on a trait object via a special record of function pointers traditionally called a ‘vtable’ (created and managed by the compiler).

Trait objects are both simple and complicated: their core representation and layout is quite straight-forward, but there are some curly error messages and surprising behaviors to discover.

Let’s start simple, with the runtime representation of a trait object. The std::raw module contains structs with layouts that are the same as the complicated built-in types, including trait objects:

# #![allow(unused_variables)]
#fn main() {
# mod foo {
pub struct TraitObject {
    pub data: *mut (),
    pub vtable: *mut (),
}
# }
#}

That is, a trait object like &Foo consists of a ‘data’ pointer and a ‘vtable’ pointer.

The data pointer addresses the data (of some unknown type T) that the trait object is storing, and the vtable pointer points to the vtable (‘virtual method table’) corresponding to the implementation of Foo for T.

A vtable is essentially a struct of function pointers, pointing to the concrete piece of machine code for each method in the implementation. A method call like trait_object.method() will retrieve the correct pointer out of the vtable and then do a dynamic call of it. For example:

struct FooVtable {
    destructor: fn(*mut ()),
    size: usize,
    align: usize,
    method: fn(*const ()) -> String,
}

// u8:

fn call_method_on_u8(x: *const ()) -> String {
    // The compiler guarantees that this function is only called
    // with `x` pointing to a u8.
    let byte: &u8 = unsafe { &*(x as *const u8) };

    byte.method()
}

static Foo_for_u8_vtable: FooVtable = FooVtable {
    destructor: /* compiler magic */,
    size: 1,
    align: 1,

    // Cast to a function pointer:
    method: call_method_on_u8 as fn(*const ()) -> String,
};


// String:

fn call_method_on_String(x: *const ()) -> String {
    // The compiler guarantees that this function is only called
    // with `x` pointing to a String.
    let string: &String = unsafe { &*(x as *const String) };

    string.method()
}

static Foo_for_String_vtable: FooVtable = FooVtable {
    destructor: /* compiler magic */,
    // Values for a 64-bit computer, halve them for 32-bit ones.
    size: 24,
    align: 8,

    method: call_method_on_String as fn(*const ()) -> String,
};

The destructor field in each vtable points to a function that will clean up any resources of the vtable’s type: for u8 it is trivial, but for String it will free the memory. This is necessary for owning trait objects like Box<Foo>, which need to clean-up both the Box allocation as well as the internal type when they go out of scope. The size and align fields store the size of the erased type, and its alignment requirements.

Suppose we’ve got some values that implement Foo. The explicit form of construction and use of Foo trait objects might look a bit like (ignoring the type mismatches: they’re all pointers anyway):

let a: String = "foo".to_string();
let x: u8 = 1;

// let b: &Foo = &a;
let b = TraitObject {
    // Store the data:
    data: &a,
    // Store the methods:
    vtable: &Foo_for_String_vtable
};

// let y: &Foo = x;
let y = TraitObject {
    // Store the data:
    data: &x,
    // Store the methods:
    vtable: &Foo_for_u8_vtable
};

// b.method();
(b.vtable.method)(b.data);

// y.method();
(y.vtable.method)(y.data);

Not every trait can be used to make a trait object. For example, vectors implement Clone, but if we try to make a trait object:

let v = vec![1, 2, 3];
let o = &v as &Clone;

We get an error:

error: cannot convert to a trait object because trait `core::clone::Clone` is not object-safe [E0038]
let o = &v as &Clone;
        ^~
note: the trait cannot require that `Self : Sized`
let o = &v as &Clone;
        ^~

The error says that Clone is not ‘object-safe’. Only traits that are object-safe can be made into trait objects. A trait is object-safe if both of these are true:

• the trait does not require that Self: Sized
• all of its methods are object-safe

So what makes a method object-safe? Each method must require that Self: Sized or all of the following:

• must not have any type parameters
• must not use Self

Whew! As we can see, almost all of these rules talk about Self. A good intuition is “except in special circumstances, if your trait’s method uses Self, it is not object-safe.”